Cracking the Code: Understanding Frith's 3 Stages of Reading and Spelling Development

Learning to read and write isn't a single leap; it's a fascinating journey with distinct milestones. As educators, parents, and anyone involved in supporting literacy, understanding this journey is crucial. It allows us to tailor our approach, provide the right support at the right time, and celebrate each step of progress.

One of the most influential models for understanding this development comes from Uta Frith (1985). She proposed a three-stage theory that beautifully outlines how children typically progress in both reading and spelling. It's important to remember, as Frith herself would acknowledge, that the age at which children move through these stages can vary widely. Factors like exposure to print, individual learning styles, and phonological awareness all play a role.

So, let's dive into Frith's stages:

Stage 1: The Logographic Phase – Reading by Sight, Spelling by Shape

What it looks like in Reading: At this initial stage, children aren't yet decoding words by sounding them out. Instead, they recognise familiar words based on distinctive visual cues or the context in which they appear.

• Classic Example: The golden arches of McDonald's. A child might not be able to read the word "McDonald's" but will instantly recognise the 'M' and associate it with the restaurant. Similarly, they might recognise their own name as a whole visual pattern.

What it looks like in Spelling: When it comes to spelling, children in the logographic phase might attempt to write a word by reproducing its visual shape, without a true understanding of the individual letters or their sounds.

• Example: A child named "William" might draw a series of squiggles that vaguely resemble the shape of his name, but he doesn't yet grasp that 'W-i-l-l-i-a-m' are individual letters making specific sounds.

Stage 2: The Alphabetic Phase – Cracking the Sound-Spelling Code

What it looks like in Reading: This is a pivotal stage where children begin to understand that words are made up of individual sounds (phonemes) and that these sounds correspond to letters or groups of letters (graphemes). They start using these spelling-sound rules to decode unfamiliar words – sounding them out.

• Example: Encountering the word "cat," a child might sound out /c/ - /a/ - /t/ and blend them together to read the word.

What it looks like in Spelling: Learners start to use their growing knowledge of phoneme-grapheme correspondences to spell words. Their attempts might not be conventionally correct, but they will likely represent the sounds they hear in the word.

• Example: A child trying to spell "jeans" might write "jns" or "gens." They are capturing the key sounds, even if the spelling isn't standard.

It's in this alphabetic phase that learners with dyslexia may face significant challenges. Difficulties with phonological skills – the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate sounds in words – can make decoding and encoding (spelling) particularly tough. They might, as a result, rely more heavily on the logographic strategy of whole-word recognition.

Stage 3: The Orthographic Phase – Recognising Patterns and Whole Words Fluently

What it looks like in Reading: As readers become more proficient, they move beyond sounding out every single letter. They start to recognise larger spelling patterns (like 'ough' in "though," "through," "bough") and common letter chunks. Many familiar words become recognised automatically as whole units, leading to faster, more fluent reading.

• Example: Instead of decoding "light" as /l/-/i/-/gh/-/t/, they recognise "ight" as a common pattern.

What it looks like in Spelling: Spellers in the orthographic phase have a good, and increasingly sophisticated, knowledge of letter-sound relationships, common spelling patterns, and orthographic rules (the conventional spelling system of a language). Their spelling becomes more accurate and automatic.

• Example: They know that "phone" starts with 'ph' not 'f', and they can correctly spell words with silent letters or tricky vowel combinations.

Why Do These Stages Matter?

Understanding Frith's model provides a valuable framework:

1. Targeted Instruction: It helps us identify where a learner is on their literacy journey and provide age- and stage-appropriate activities. For instance, focusing heavily on phonics is crucial for the alphabetic stage, while word-family games might be more suited as they approach the orthographic stage.

2. Understanding "Errors": What might look like a "mistake" can actually be a sign of development. A child spelling "jns" for "jeans" isn't just getting it wrong; they're actively applying alphabetic principles!

3. Supporting All Learners: Recognising that some learners, like those with dyslexia, might struggle more with the alphabetic phase helps us to provide targeted interventions and alternative strategies, while still building on their strengths.

4. Patience and Perspective: It reminds us that literacy development is a process. Progress isn't always linear, and each child will navigate these stages at their own pace.

Frith’s model isn't just an academic theory; it's a practical lens through which we can observe, understand, and ultimately, better support our young readers and writers as they crack the code of language. By recognising these developmental steps, we can foster a more effective and encouraging learning environment for everyone.

Reference: Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In K. E. Patterson, J. C. Marshall, & M. Coltheart (Eds.), Surface dyslexia: Neuropsychological and cognitive studies of phonological reading (pp. 301-330). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.